cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogensbest freshman dorm at coastal carolina

Dry ice starts subliming at 109.3F. Safety goggles provide the best protection for the eyes. Cryogen gloves are intended for handling very cold items and to protect against an accidental splash. Contact the Environmental Programs office at 206.616.5835 for guidance on removing the valve on your particular cylinder. Cylinders stored and used on campus must be clearly labeled. Pressurizedcontainers have vents, dispensing hoses, and pressure gauges. %%EOF Institutional Biosafety Committee Registration, Authorization to Use Radioactive Materials, Non-laboratory Uses of Radioactive Materials, Transporting Hazardous Materials in Motor Vehicles, Safety Training Curriculum and Prerequisites, Access Training Records and Print Certificates, Principal Investigator Safety Orientation, Safe Handling of Human Cell Lines/Materials in a Research Laboratory, Awareness Training for the Transport of Hazardous Material, Transportation of Infectious Substances Category B, Occupational Exposure to Bloodborne Pathogens, Biological Materials Requiring Incineration, Equipment Containing Radioactive Materials, Process for Decontaminating Laboratory Equipment, Biological Samples Stored in Liquid Nitrogen, Risk Group 2 Biological Materials Storage, Electrical Safety in the Research Laboratory, How to safely and effectively use gloves as PPE, Bonding and Grounding for Flammable Solvents, Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, Office for the Protection of Human Subjects. Refer to the manufacturers instructions on correct valve positions and how to extract liquid. high-carbon steel mean? Additionally, when handling cryogenic liquids, pant legs should go over the tops of footwear so spills cannot get into boots or shoes and cause extreme tissue damage before the footwear can be removed. [citation needed] Busch originally experimented with the possibility of increasing the life of metal tools to anywhere between 200% and 400% of the original life expectancy using cryogenic tempering instead of heat treating. Due to the low temperatures all cryogens and dry ice pose the following hazards: The extremely low temperatures cause tissues to freeze immediately upon contact, leading to severe burns and frostbite to skin and eyes. In the case of a large spill or rupture of a container, evacuate the area while alerting others. This is no accident. Refer to theTransporting Compressed Gases and CryogensFocus Sheetfor best practices for transporting these materials safely. of the 26th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Vol. In addition, all cryogens can condense sufficient moisture from the air to block the opening in storage vessels. Air should be prevented from condensing into liquid nitrogenby using loose-fitting stoppers or covers that allow for the venting of nitrogenboil-off gas. Always use a freight elevator to carry cryogenic containers and cylinders. hb```f``rf`? Evaporation also leads to a rapid increase of pressure and possible vessel rupture if cryogens are stored in a container that is not adequately vented. Liquid nitrogen can also cause argon to condense and form liquid argon. Cryogen gloves are usually made from a non-porous material and are different from heat resistant gloves. In the event of massive exposure, the emergency shower should be used to warm the body. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens http://www.advancedlab.org/mediawiki/images/b/b4/77cryogenic.pdf (accessed Dec 2013). A cryogen or cryogenic liquid is defined by the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) as any liquid with a boiling point below 93K (-180C or -240F) at 1 atmosphere of pressure. Examine containers and pressure relief valves for signs of defect. Different cryogens become liquids under different conditions of temperature and pressure, but all have two common properties: they are extremely cold and small amounts of the liquid can expand into very large volumes of gas. Our latest news What is the rate constant for this firstorder decomposition at 325C?325 ^ { \circ } \mathrm { C }?325C? Transportation of cryogenic liquids in elevators poses a potential asphyxiation and fire/explosion risk if workers become trapped in an elevator with a container of cryogen. Download the free OSH Answers app. Cryogenic fluids have large liquid-to-gas expansion ratios: These ratios mean that any accidental release or overflow of these cryogenic liquids will quickly boil into gas and createan asphyxiation hazardby displacing the oxygen content of the surrounding area. Cryogenic liquid storage at warm temperature for an extended time can cause flash vaporization and produce extremely high pressure. - the use of radioactive materials is highly regulated and requires additional training and approvals by your institution. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens. Classification Emergency Procedures Room Signage Labeling Cylinder status tags Gas delivery systems Regulators Procurement hb```~V] ea`( d%f|g z p@ys - Minnesota - 41.2 degrees Fahrenheit. %PDF-1.5 cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens. Examples of liquefied gases include: ammonia, chlorine, methane, natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas or liquid petroleum gas (lpg) which are propane and butane. Never attempt to change or remove any fittings of the cylinder, and do NOT use adaptors. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens which statements apply to physical hazards in the laboratory? Methods of Solvent Removal at Ambient Temperatures - Cryovap There are also specific precautions that must be followed where a particular liquid may react with contaminants or may present other hazards associated with that particular product such as asphyxiation or flammability. Without adequate oxygen, one can lose consciousness in a few seconds and die of asphyxiation in a few minutes. Avoid mechanical or thermal shock. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens. In physics, cryogenics is the production and behaviour of materials at very low temperatures . Cryogenic liquids can boil or splash when added to a warm container or when inserting warm objects in the liquid. Small quantities of liquid nitrogen or liquid argon may be transported in and around buildings provided they are contained within an appropriate low pressure dewar (fitted with a lid) and carried by their handles. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens According to Segal-Maurer, it isn't actually the cold weather that causes the common cold, it's what we do when it gets cold out. The NIH requires oversight of most recombinant DNA activities. Both cryogenic liquids and dry ice can produce very large volumes of gas at room temperatures. Ordering information is provided on theUW eProcurementWeb page. Keep containers vertical at all times. Always push containers on wheels. If skin or the eyes are exposed to cryogens or the cold vapor, use warm water (up to 108 F/42 C, NOT above 112 F/44 C) to restore normal body temperature. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens This class of gases that are referred to as dissolved gases are those that are dissolved in another substance. GHS-Globally Harmonized System (HazCom) - Online, NFPA 55 - Compressed gas and Cryogenic Fluids Code, WAC: Permissible Exposure Limits for Airborne Contaminants. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens. Even well-ventilated lab spaces that have pits or other low-lying areas could have the oxygen displaced by this cold, dense gas. Larger, low-pressure dewars may come with casters/wheels attached to the bottom. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens. What Is Cold Weather? | Extreme Cold Weather Safety For the journal, see. Other cryogenic liquids present specific hazards in addition to the above concerns. Cryogenic liquids are typically odorless and colorless when vaporized to the gaseous state. If affected, flush eyes with warm water for 15 minutes. At 660. No products in the cart. - lasers are classified by their potential for harm Avoid contact of moisture with storage containers to prevent ice plugging of relief devices. Contact with dry ice, cryogenic liquids and their gases, and any cooled surfaces should be avoided. Always perform these operations slowly to minimize boiling and splashing. Do not remove manufacturer applied labels. (217) 333-2755 Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic applications. Quick Tips #290.1. If contact does occur, immediately flush the area with large quantities of warm water (104F). A: Gloves should be insulated and made to withstand the low temperatures of cryogenic liquids and dry ice. There are three groups of health hazards associated with cryogenic liquids and dry ice extreme cold, asphyxiation and toxicity. June 30, 2022 . They are not designed to be submerged in a cryogenic liquid. This definition includes liquid nitrogen (LN2), liquid argon (LAr), liquid helium (LHe), liquid hydrogen (LH2), and liquid oxygen (LO2 . Gifford-McMahon cryocoolers, pulse tube cryocoolers and Stirling cryocoolers are in wide use with selection based on required base temperature and cooling capacity. Cryogens, such as liquid nitrogen, are further used for specialty chilling and freezing applications. Use tongs with insulated handles to withdraw objects immersed in cryogenic liquids. The term cryogenic means producing or related to low temperatures. Never roll cryogenic liquid cylinders. drs@illinois.edu. Wearing a cryogenic apron is suggested to help prevent this from occurring. Do not transport cryogenic liquids in open dewars. 0 Be familiar with the functioning of the cylinder before using it. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens Compressed Gas / Cryogenic Fluids | EHS Each cryogenic liquid or dry ice can cause specific health effects. 3 0 obj cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogensdnds meaning bj's. 0 . Loose, non-asbestos insulating gloves that can be easily removed may be worn. Hydrogen is particularly hazardous. The safe handling of cryogenic liquids involves understanding the unique properties of these materials and ensuring that appropriate safety precautions are taken at all times. which of the following statements apply to a Chemical Risk Assessment? The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear. NEVER seal a vessel containing a cryogen, including dry ice. Violent reactions (e.g. When transferring cryogenic liquid into experimental equipment, the recommended procedure is to purge air out of the transfer line and the equipment by using dry gas of the cryogenic liquid. All cryogenic liquids have a significant potential for creating an oxygen deficient environment. Cryogens are stored in confined containers such as pressurized dewars and cylinders. Work in an open, well-ventilated location. All Rights Reserved. A: Nitrogen condenses to a liquid at 320F. Provide proper venting for the dewars used in experiments. A good face shield should have adjustments to fit many head sizes and should provide good coverage of the entire front of the head, including around the sides. Before transporting cryogenic liquid cylinders, the user must ensure that all process valves (gas supply, liquid supply, pressure builder, and vent) are closed. Removing skin from any material can cause a tearing of the flesh. hXYOI+3}H1XZ(&h}hU{Rve}UWW a%2^AtTK,wZL[KV1[fyQs:*6+d%`IxnpxZ r4]1znb5poesXbKZMU;x346G]wdq2+i`}^Mf,QbX/?4c*y~X3U/MIs.I--vy3#?N&.vvq:qjh)(g~06,]3Y]vUg.1hDNdbtvY/hYE{:"j%7\7''7!D?yC:+yL \IzD\n\w|~5H&sU;kcihvV||0_i|^=>Vd!*?8tk?Ih`PU0q;DkF%~lyAF$i!DimD:*G|*8Ozt_S^>ms{=:6!Be*>F>,!=~n=x>HP+q#MQ=eXW7)s OSHA: Compressed Gases, 20 UW Environmental Health & Safety Department | 201 Hall Health Center, Box 354400, Seattle, WA | Tel: 206.543.7262 | Fax: 206.543.3351 | ehsdept@uw.edu, Fume Hoods: Use, Inspection and Maintenance, Building Emergency Procedures and Resources, Fire Code Hazardous Materials (HazMat) Compliance, Radiation Detection Instrument Calibration, Use of Radiation in Human Subjects Research, UW Research & Training Building Remediation, Asbestos and Other Regulated Building Materials, Hazardous Energy Control - Lockout/Tagout, GHS-DOTClassification Comparisons Relevant to Compressed Gases, Transporting Compressed Gases and CryogensFocus Sheet, WAC: Permissible Exposure Limits for Airborne Contaminants, Transporting Compressed Gases and Cryogens, GHS DOT Classification Comparisons Relevant to Compressed Gases, A Guide to the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (OSHA), List of Chemicals Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH). These cryogenic liquids have boiling points below -180 C and are normally used at atmospheric pressure. LOX is also widely used with RP-1 kerosene, a non-cryogenic hydrocarbon, such as in the rockets built for the Soviet space program by Sergei Korolev. As all alloys do not have the same chemical constituents, the tempering procedure varies according to the material's chemical composition, thermal history and/or a tool's particular service application. If cryogenic liquids have to be used or stored in a poorly ventilated area, or if large amounts could potentially be released and cause oxygen deficiency, an oxygen monitor should be installed. 8 B;jk%`;@M`$>7}J@v[` @=T} @RkD4iRde~R~Ru8) IaIB{gFcJ"DKH >D[[(B17pR!t"@>>NdB^WQNUxgVJh-ocu/1s ~07Y Compressed gases may also be referred to as gas cylinders. <>/ExtGState<>/XObject<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB/ImageC/ImageI] >>/Annots[ 57 0 R 58 0 R] /MediaBox[ 0 0 612 792] /Contents 4 0 R/Group<>/Tabs/S/StructParents 0>> When cryogenic liquids are spilled on the skin, a thin gaseous layer apparently forms next the skin. These liquids have boiling points below 238 F (150 C) and are gases at normal room temperatures and pressures. Place cryotubes in a thick-wall container, e.g., a desiccator, or behind a safety shield while thawing. University of Texas at Austin students, faculty, staff, and affiliate researchers who work in labs containing cryogen materials must complete OH 241 Cryogen Safety training. rapid combustion or explosions) may occur if the system or process is not compatible with liquid oxygen (see below). Safe Handling of Cryogenic Materials Guidelines - University of Health Send the elevator to the desired floor and have somebody there to pick it up. Fill cryogenic liquids only into manufacturer-approved containers that can withstand the extremely low temperatures. Do not attempt to carry additional items while holding the dewar, such as books, beverages, samples or tools. They can operate at up to 350 psig. The freezing of portions of the body to destroy unwanted or malfunctioning tissue is known as cryosurgery. Cryogens have boiling points below -150C (- 238F), although carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide have slightly higher boiling points and are often included . This machine has been a workhorse for Pressure regulators lower the gas pressure to a useable level. Prolonged breathing of extremely cold air may damage the lungs. This definition includes liquid nitrogen (LN2), liquid argon (LAr), liquid helium (LHe), liquid hydrogen (LH2), and liquid oxygen (LO2), among others. low temperatures [below -153C (-243F)] . Some dewar flasks have an outer vessel of liquid nitrogen for insulation. Use appropriate glassware rated for use with cryogens. In many situations LN2 and LHe2 can condense the surrounding air. The links below are to the Fire Code definitions for compressed gases Web page and GHS and DOT definitions with pictograms to help identify how chemicals are classified. - Division of Research Safety | Illinois Do not permit liquid oxygen or oxygen rich atmosphere to come into contact with organic materials or flammable substances of any kind. 225 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<9152C53260D4D64BB2C1530E525A7948><57F71CF2E9C85847A8F6B64F6F07010D>]/Index[202 42]/Info 201 0 R/Length 112/Prev 144945/Root 203 0 R/Size 244/Type/XRef/W[1 3 1]>>stream The gloves must be loose so they can be thrown off quickly if cryogenic liquid spills into them. `fub;TgdZ`8 To protect any exposed skin, long-sleeve shirts and trousers without cuffs are suggested. Do NOT rub the frozen skin. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens As always, end users should have and be thoroughly familiar with the SDS for their specific product. 102 Environmental Health and Safety Building101 South Gregory Street, MC-225 Do NOT use plastic or Teflon tubing as they will become brittle from the cold temperature. A cryogenic liquid is defined as a liquid with a normal boiling point below -240F (-150C, 123K). Brief exposures that may not affect the hands can damage delicate tissues such as the eyes. Non-pressurizedcontainers are typically open-topped vessels or Dewars with loose fitting covers to minimize evaporation or off gassing and range from one to 50 liters in size. Cryogenic liquids and dry ice are shipped and used in thermally insulated containers specifically designed to withstand rapid temperature changes and extreme differences in temperature and vent gases to prevent pressure build-ups within the container. Cryogenic fluids with their boiling point in kelvins[13] and degree Celsius. Store all cryogenic liquids away from combustible material and do not leave containers uncovered for long periods of times. 0 Examples include: The primary function of a face shield is to protect the head and face from any splashes that may occur, especially during operations that are carried out at eye level (e.g. Safely dispensing liquid nitrogen and handling cryogenic tubes. If medical attention is needed following a skin or eye exposure to a cryogenic liquid, immediately call 9-911 and then call 2-9090 (the College Emergency Action Directors line). Wear cryogenic gloves and eye protection when transporting containers. Most of them have no color as a liquid although liquid oxygen is light blue. The following table summarizes the physical properties of common cryogens: aAlthough oxygen does not burn, it will support combustion. Cryogens should never be brought onto a bus or shuttle. Since all cryogenic liquids and their cold boil-off vapors are extremely cold they can rapidly freeze human tissue and cause frostbite. All cryogenic liquids are gases at normal temperatures and pressures. Special Fire Department permits and engineering controls such as a gas storage cabinet may be required to use toxic or corrosive gases. Colds spread when you blow, wipe or sneeze the virus from your nose to another [ Tip: Wash your hands! All clothing must be removed prior to showering. Portable and efficient multistage cooling system operating at 0.29 K to 0.35 K. The H3R refrigerator is a multistage cooling system utilizing the properties of He3, a man-made isotope of helium. NMR: a. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens. Refer to theGas and Cryogen Focus Sheetfor key design concepts. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens. An occasional hissing sound from a cylinder indicates normal operation of the pressure relief valve as the liquid slowly evaporates. A cryogenic liquid is defined as a liquid with a normal boiling point below -240F (-150C, 123K). This definition does not include liquid propane, liquid butane, liquid acetylene, or liquefied natural gas (methane). Additionally, when handling cryogenic liquids, pant legs should go over the tops of footwear so spills cannot get into boots or shoes and cause extreme tissue damage before the footwear can be removed. The extremely low temperatures associated with cryogenic liquids can easily condense moisture from the air and cause ice formation. Open liquid cryogen containers can condense oxygen from the air into the liquid and reach levels as high as 80% O2, potentially increasing the flammability of combustible materials. nitrogen and helium each have boiling points lower than oxygen's boiling point) have the ability to condense oxygen out of the air if exposed to the atmosphere. Cryotubes stored under liquid nitrogen can explode while thawing. Environment, Health and Safety Information for the Berkeley Campus #77: Cryogenic Liquids Precautions and Safe Handling Procedures. Ensure that all equipment and containers are free of oil, grease, dirt or other materials which may create a hazardous condition upon contact with the cryogenic liquid. With a background in the heat treating industry, the Busch brothers founded a company in Detroit called CryoTech in 1966 [15] which merged with 300 Below in 1999 to become the world's largest and oldest commercial cryogenic processing company. Generally,chemical-splash gogglesandface shieldsshould always be worn during the transfer and handling process of cryogenic liquids to guard against splashes and spills. In most instances the cryogenic cycle is followed by a heat tempering procedure. Introduction. Within 24 hours, 5-10 pounds of dry ice can sublimate. Dressings need not be applied if the skin is intact. Use a hand truck for transport. Thus, they are constantly boiling during use. Liquid nitrogen is the most frequently used cryogen on campus. Do not attempt to identify the compressed gas in the cylinder on your own. Q: Why can't I wear a cartridge-style air-purifying respirator to protect from liquid-nitrogen vapors? Contact with cryogenic vapor or a non-insulated vessel containing cryogen is sufficient to sustain such injuries. Oxygen is not flammable, but it vigorously accelerates and supports combustion. Cryogenic Liquid and Dry Ice-Specific Equipment. Users should be aware of all the hazards associated with the gases they are using. Dewar flasks are non-pressurized, vacuum-jacketed vessels, somewhat like a thermos bottle, designed for cryogenic liquids. Seek medical attention. With your help we are embarking on many exciting projects here at the College. Division of Research Safety Concentrations of more than 0.5% (5000 ppm) carbon dioxide in the air can lead to unconsciousness. Ear plugs can be worn to protect the ear in case a cryogenic vial explodes. }G32QK4%{pz]ST@:]TMt vPcB&Q{tdX0pf(t5| y{|%$p1HJ0y$x Hl$`$0Rj"J c:?2 F@Gc}#>; I`.' $IPX(!ygwowv6uZ|_^'/ ux;3~\3M_>?? W3J/ox/_J||\ ?Q:A(>3m [zW|B,)>azq!eMS,3fJ'i^ 0. PDF Cryogens & Dry Ice Fact Sheet - essr.umd.edu Use solid wood or plastic. Cryogen gloves are usually loose fitting and easy to remove quickly. There are various cryogenic detectors which are used to detect particles. Put the container into the elevator and place a sign on it the cylinder facing the door Do not enter elevator, asphyxiation hazard (Elevator Sign). Do You Know How to Handle Dry Ice Safely. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens Address: 1200 E Martin Luther King Jr Blvd, Suite 1.200, Austin, Texas 78712Phone: 512-471-3511Find an EHS Email Contact, Website problems? Cryogenic cooling of devices and material is usually achieved via the use of liquid nitrogen, liquid helium, or a mechanical cryocooler (which uses high-pressure helium lines). Other applications include fast freezing of some foods and the preservation of some biological materials. By freezing the automobile or truck tire in liquid nitrogen, the rubber is made brittle and can be crushed into small particles. Cryogenic processing is not a substitute for heat treatment, but rather an extension of the heatingquenchingtempering cycle. The freezing of foods and biotechnology products, like vaccines, requires nitrogen in blast freezing or immersion freezing systems. Dry ice, most cryogenic liquids and the gasses they produce can be placed into one of three groups: Cryogenics and dry ice have many uses and often play a role in industrial and medical applications. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens Do NOT rub the frozen skin. Copyright 2023 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois. The 13th IIR International Congress of Refrigeration (held in Washington DC in 1971) endorsed a universal definition of "cryogenics" and "cryogenic" by accepting a threshold of 120 K (or -153 C) to distinguish these terms from the conventional . - carelessness and bad luck are the leading cause of laboratory fires. 0;8?O90XXN | \O9-Pa|XdpAjAgf?pjEK=oI9Sa2+6G@\)91omcTCFl,"qn@f_9M4w]-{aPldVQ6Bm,[{}p2U- 7\%U(9qKAA5q. Although a weakened immune system will increase the virus's chance of survival . Have pot holders or appropriate gloves on hand. Wearing a cryogenic apron is suggested to help prevent this from occurring. C ryogenics is a term normally associated with low temperatures. They are equipped with a loose-fitting cap or lid to prevent air from entering while allowing evolved gas to escape. C2H5I(g)C2H4(g)+HI(g). K,k=7.2104s1;660.\ \mathrm { K },\ k = 7.2 \times 10 ^ { - 4 }\ \mathrm { s } ^ { - 1 };660. This thin layer protects the skin from freezing, provided the contact with the cryogen is brief and in small quantities. 22 febrero, 2022 . cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens. mc1OS Parts of a liquid nitrogen tank including the safety features. These devices work on the principle known as the magnetocaloric effect. Keep all sources of ignition away from cryogenic liquids. cold temperatures associated with the use of cryogens. Cartridge-style air-purifying respirators are only made to remove contaminants, so they are inappropriate for an environment that is oxygen deficient. All cylinders should bear a cylinder status tag stating one of the three conditions: full, in-serviceor empty. One volume of liquid nitrogen, for example, will vaporize to approximately 700 volumes of nitrogen gas when warmed to room temperature at one atmosphere. 4, pp. Keep regulators clean and free of surface oil and grease, especially oxidizing gases. K,k=1.7102s1.720.\ \mathrm { K },\ k = 1.7 \times 10 ^ { - 2 }\ \mathrm { s } ^ { - 1 } .720. lab safety fundamentals Flashcards | Quizlet The boiling points or sublimation points for cryogens are listed in the table below: Note that this document does NOT cover hazards associated with using liquid oxygen or liquid hydrogen. Certain soft or elastic materials become hard and brittle at very low temperatures, which makes cryogenic milling (cryomilling) an option for some materials that cannot easily be milled at higher temperatures. Connection fittings, stamped Compressed Gas Association (CGA) numbers, plaquesand/or decals on the regulator indicate for which gas the regulator is designed. The College of Chemistry is consistently ranked as one of the best places on earth to learn, teach, and create new tools in the chemical sciences. Chapter 47. Cryogenics - Ashrae Contact with and destruction of living tissues. There are a number of general precautions and safe practices that must be observed because of the extremely low temperatures and high rates of conversion into gas of all the cryogenic liquids. The pressure can cause a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE). f@TzgJ%@9m0^q&XWkk)E+vjZmj/tI{Yzb/[ ^4(=ZsG[J Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory: ES&H Manual, Chapter 29: Safe Handling of cryogenic liquids http://www.lbl.gov/ehs/pub3000/CH29/CH29.html (accessed Dec 2013). ALL toxic and highly toxic gases are purchased through Praxair, unless unavailable.

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